Indus Valley Civilisation

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**Historical Context and Discovery:**
– Named after the Indus river system, also referred to as Harappan civilization.
– Contemporary with Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and China.
– Alexander Cunningham interpreted a Harappan seal in 1875, and John Marshall oversaw excavations in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
– Charles Masson discovered Harappa in 1829, with subsequent excavations by various archaeologists.
– ASI founded in 1861, leading to systematic excavations in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa.

**Geographical Extent and Population:**
– Spread over a large area from Balochistan to Gujarat.
– Agriculture emerged in Balochistan around 6500 BCE.
– Population estimates range between 1-5 million.
– Ghaggar-Hakra River sites and monsoon-fed Ghaggar-Hakra river system.
– Over 1,000 Mature Harappan cities and settlements reported by 2002.

**Urban Planning and Infrastructure:**
– Cities known for urban planning, brick houses, and large non-residential buildings.
– Advanced drainage and water supply systems.
– Techniques of handicraft and metallurgy.
– Mohenjo-daro and Harappa population estimates.
– Municipal town planning, sanitation systems, and advanced architecture.

**Language, Script, and Culture:**
– Harappan language not directly attested, script undeciphered.
– Affiliation with Dravidian or Elamo-Dravidian language family.
– Indus script remains a mystery.
– Indus Valley seals, pottery, terracotta, stone sculptures, and crafts.
– Makeup and toiletry items found in Harappan contexts.

**Post-Partition Archaeological Work and International Contributions:**
– ASI focused on Indianizing archaeological work post-1947, while Pakistan promoted Islamic heritage.
– International efforts at Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, including projects by Germany, Italy, and the US.
– UNESCO involved in the conservation of Mohenjo-daro.
– Various international missions and collaborations aimed at research, excavation, and preservation.
– Mortimer Wheeler’s contributions and establishment of archaeological institutions post-partition.

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